Fig. 1

Effects of active-phase fasting on maternal and fetal weight during pregnancy. a Experimental design and timeline. Formal experimentation began after confirming pregnancy through vaginal smears, marking GD0.5. Maternal energy intake was recorded every 24 h until GD18.5 (ND group, n = 10; IF group, n = 8). b Feeding data was collected over 17 complete 24-h cycles. c Maternal body weight at GD0.5, GD6.5, GD12.5, and GD18.5. d Maternal weight gain during pregnancy. e Average wet weight of maternal organs at GD19.5, including hippocampi, heart, kidneys, spleen, and liver from top to bottom. f–k Developmental status of the fetus in ND and IF groups (ND group, n = 141 fetuses; IF group, n = 92 fetuses): f Average fetus number per litter. g Fetal sex ratio. h Weight of the fetuses. i Average wet weight of the placenta. j Placental efficiency (calculated as fetal weight/placenta weight). k Total fetal brain weight. Results for panels (b–f and h–k) were presented as mean ± SEM. Statistical significance was denoted as follows: ns indicated no statistical difference (p > 0.05); *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001, ****p < 0.0001