Fig. 3

Astrocytes in the BAVM pathological microenvironment exhibit unique phenotypic changes. A Representative fluorescence images of immunostaining with GFAP and CD31. Images of (i)–(iv) were locally magnified images. Images of (i′)–(iv′) were 3D-rendered images of immunostaining with GFAP. Scale bar = 10 μm. The asterisk (*) represents the vascular lumen of BAVM. B, C The quantification of astrocytes’ main branches number and surface area (n = 3 mice). D Representative fluorescence images of immunostaining with AQP4 and CD31. Scale bar = 10 μm. The asterisk (*) represents the vascular lumen of BAVM. E A schematic illustrating the extraction of primary astrocytes from fresh brain tissues. F Representative western blot images of HIF-1α of control and BAVM group. G The quantification of HIF-1α/β-actin (n = 4 mice). H–M Relative mRNA levels of Cd44, Angptl4, Loxl2, Cox-2, Mcp1 and Vegf-a in astrocytes from control and BAVM mice (n = 5 mice)