Table 9 summarizing the data of all clinical studies in anxiety disorders/MDD/schizophrenia specifying the design, objectives, methodology, results, and conclusion
From: Immunity in neuromodulation: probing neural and immune pathways in brain disorders
Study Number | Design | Objectives | Methodology | Results | Conclusion |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
110 | Clinical Trial | Evaluate cytokine changes with TBS in major depressive disorder (MDD) | TBS (theta-burst stimulation): cTBS and iTBS protocols on dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (22 days, 10 sessions) | No change in inflammatory cytokines, except CRP upregulated in sham group | TBS has no significant impact on cytokine levels in MDD |
111 | Clinical Trial | Study cytokine profile after tDCS in bipolar depressive episodes | tDCS on prefrontal cortex (2 mA, 30 min/day, 10 days, plus at week 4 and week 6) | IL-8 and IL-1β downregulated; TNF, GDNF, and IL-17a increased by week 6 | tDCS modulates specific cytokines, potentially beneficial for bipolar depression |
112 | Clinical Trial | Assess cytokine levels after bifrontal tDCS in acute MDD | tDCS on F3 and F4 regions (0.8 A/m2, 30 min/day) | Decrease in IL2, IL4, IL6, IL10, IL17a, and IFN-γ; TNF-α unchanged | Bifrontal tDCS reduces inflammatory cytokine levels in MDD |
113 | Observational Study | Measure cytokine changes pre- and post-ECT in depressed patients | Cytokine profiling before and after ECT | No significant changes in CRP, IL-6, IL-10, or TNF-α levels post-ECT | ECT does not significantly alter cytokine levels |
114 | Clinical Trial | Investigate CSF cytokine changes after ECT in treatment-resistant MDD | Cytokine analysis in CSF and serum pre/post-ECT | IL5, IL8, and IP-10 levels increased in CSF; IL2R, MIP1α correlated with remission; differences between responders and non-responders for various cytokines | ECT impacts cytokines differently in responders versus non-responders, showing potential biomarkers for remission |
115 | Clinical Trial | Explore immune cell changes post-ECT in treatment-resistant MDD | Immune profiling pre/post-ECT in MDD patients | Increased monocytes, granulocytes, NK cells; transient cytokine production by monocytes post-LPS; no long-term changes | ECT induces transient immune activation with no lasting effect |
116 | Observational Study | Examine NK cell activity in ECT remitters and non-remitters | Analysis of NK cell subtypes pre/post-ECT | NK cell cytotoxicity increased post-ECT; differences in NK cell subtypes between remitters and non-remitters | NK cell changes are linked to ECT outcomes and cognitive changes |
117 | Clinical Trial | Study the effect of VNS on cytokine levels in refractory MDD | VNS stimulation and cytokine analysis | Decrease in IL-7, CXCL8, CCL2, CCL13, CCL17, CCL22; increase in bFGF | VNS reduces inflammation and may improve BBB integrity, aiding in MDD treatment |
118 | Clinical Trial | Investigate immune regulatory circuits with rTMS in treatment-resistant MDD | Serum amino acid, kynurenine/tryptophan ratio, and BDNF levels pre/post-rTMS | Decreased kynurenine/tryptophan ratio, neopterin, and nitrite levels; BDNF levels correlated with immune markers | rTMS alters immune regulatory pathways, influencing MDD outcomes |
119 | Comparative Study | Compare effects of ketamine and ECT on kynurenine pathway in treatment-resistant MDD | Kynurenine pathway analysis in ketamine- and ECT-treated patients | Ketamine: lower cortisol, higher kynurenine and tryptophan; ECT: neuroprotective changes in kynurenine ratios | Ketamine and ECT impact immune and neuroprotective pathways differently |
120 | Observational Study | Examine kynurenine pathway changes post-ECT | Kynurenine metabolism analysis post-ECT | Increased kynurenic acid levels, KYN/TRP, and kynurenic acid/3-HK ratio post-ECT | ECT may exert antidepressant effects through kynurenine pathway changes |
121 | Observational Study | Explore ECT effects on innate immune system regulation | Nitric oxide synthase, nitrite, and lipid peroxidation markers pre/post-ECT | Decrease in nitrites, PGE2, and lipid peroxidation in responders; downregulation of NFκB | ECT modulates innate immune and inflammatory pathways, aiding antidepressant effects |
122 | Clinical Trial | Assess the impact of rTMS on cognitive dysfunction and inflammation in MDD | Serum sTREM2 levels pre/post-rTMS | No significant changes in serum sTREM2 levels despite cognitive improvements | Cognitive benefits of rTMS may not involve changes in sTREM2 |
123 | Clinical Trial | Correlate CSF innate immune markers with ECT-induced symptom improvements | CSF immune marker analysis pre/post-ECT | Decrease in innate immune activity (sCD14, sCD163); baseline sCD14 predicts symptom reduction; differences between responders and non-responders | CSF immune activity may drive antidepressant effects of ECT |
124 | Observational Study | Investigate CSF and serum correlations in macrophage/microglia markers in treatment-resistant MDD | CSF and serum cytokine analysis pre/post-ECT | MIF levels decreased post-ECT; correlations found for sCD14, sCD163, and other markers | Macrophage/microglia activity may be central to ECT’s antidepressant effects |
125 | Observational Study | Correlate immune markers with hippocampal volume changes after ECT | Immune profiling and MRI pre/post-ECT | IL6 reduction correlates with increased hippocampal volume; TNF-α reduction correlates with left hippocampal changes | ECT-induced immune changes are linked to hippocampal neuroplasticity |
126 | Observational Study | Investigate BDNF and TNF-α interaction in ECT-treated depressed patients | Cytokine analysis and depression score assessment pre/post-ECT | BDNF and TNF-α interaction significantly influences depression scores | Interaction between neurotrophins and cytokines impacts ECT outcomes |
127 | Observational Study | Explore cytokine and neuroplasticity correlations in white matter after ECT | Cytokine and neuroimaging data analysis pre/post-ECT | IL8 correlates with changes in white matter microstructure in responders | Cytokines and white matter changes are involved in ECT therapeutic effects |
128 | Observational Study | Study DNA methylation changes in immune cells post-ECT | DNA methylation analysis in NK cells, B cells, monocytes, and T cells pre/post-ECT | DNA methylation changes independent of clinical outcome; consistent across immune cell subtypes | ECT induces epigenetic changes in immune cells, potentially impacting treatment |
129 | Theoretical Study | Propose purinergic signaling involvement in ECT effects | Literature review of ATP, P2X, P2Y, and P1 receptor pathways | ECT increases ATP release, altering glial purinoceptor expression and neuroinflammatory signaling | Purinergic signaling may explain ECT’s impact on depressive symptoms and mood regulation |