Table 4 Mechanistic role of gut microbiota in the regulation of brain cancer

Glioblastoma

GL261 syngeneic glioblastoma mice

High glucose drink

↑Rikenellaceae strain, Desulfovibrionaceae strain, Odoribacteraceae strain

↓FR888536_f strain, Phophyromonadaceae strain, Lactobacillaceae strain, Lachnospiraceae strain

↑CD4⁺ T_C cell/FOXP3⁺ T_reg ratio, CD8⁺ T_C cell/FOXP3⁺ T_reg ratio, IFNγ, Isg15 Ifi27l2a, Ifit1, Ifit2, Ifit3

↓Isg20, Ifitm1, Ifitm2, and Ifitm3

[195]

GL261 syngeneic glioblastoma mice

High glucose drink + Desulfovibrio vulgaris

↑Desulfovibrio vulgaris

↑Survival

[195]

Glioma

U87-MG, U251-MG cell lines

Serum from Taohong Siwu Decoction fed SPF mice

-

↑CSF3, PLAU, UHRF1, FOSL1, IL1B, DUSP6, MCM2, CCND1, WNT7B, MCM5, MCL1, SH2B3, MCM3, HNRNPM, PALM2AKAP2

↓Proliferation, Colony formation, ATF4, FDFT1, ADCY8, CYP1B1, EREG, FAM114A1, EIF4A2, AKR1B1, C14orf132, COL1A2, CDKN1A, ASPH, DEPP1, AKR1C1, DDIT4

[253]

Glioma

Orthotropic xenograft model

Temozolomide

↑α-diversity indices of Chao1, Shannon, Simpson, Firmicutes, Verrucomicrobiota

↓Bacteroidota

-

[192]

Luci-GL261 glioma orthotropic xenograft model

Temozolomide

↑Alloprevotella, Desulfovibrio, Muribaculum

↓Akkermansia

↓IL-1β, TNF-α, %Macrophages, %Cytotxic T lymphocytes

[192]

Glioma

C57BL/6 mice (GL261 cells)

Bifidobacterium lactis + Lactobacillus plantarum

↑Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio, Bifidobacterium lactis, Lactobacillus plantarum, Firmicutes

↓Bacteriodetes,

↑Survival, Neurobehaviour, Occludin, PTEN, threonic acid, conduritol b epoxide 1, ascorbate, 5-alpha-cholestan-3-one 1, maltose, 2’-deoxyadenosine, succinate semialdehyde 1, dehydroascorbic acid 1, 4-hydroxypyridine, L-dopa 1

↓Tumour volume, Ki67⁺ cells/section, Survivin, p-PI3K, N-cadherin, L-kynurenine 1, beta-glutamic acid 1, albendazole 1, coprostan-3-one, citraconic acid 3, glucosaminic acid, galactinol, methyl yellow, elaidic acid, D-Arabitol

[272]

Glioma

C57BL/6 mice (GL261 cells)

Temozolomide

↑Intestimonas, Anaerotruncus, phylum Verrucomicrobia, phylum Deferribateres, genus Akkermansia, genus Bifidobacterium, genus Coprobacillus, genus Clostridium_XVIII, genus Sporobacter, genus Romboutsia, genus Bilophila, genus Anaerotruncus, genus Vampirovibrio, genus Mucispirillum, genus Oscillibacter

↓genus Coprobacter, genus Barnesiella

↑Glutathione metabolism, fatty acid biosynthesis, mineral absorption, cofactor- and vitamin- biosynthesis

[193]

Glioma

C57BL/6 N mice

ABX (Vancomycin + Gentamycin + Sucralose)

↑family Alcaligenaceae, family Burkholderiaceae

↓family Prevotellaceae, family Rikenellacaea, family Helicobacteraceae

↑Tumour volume, CD27⁺/CD11b^– NK cells, ARG1, P2RY12, iNOS mRNA

↓Total NK cells number, Shannon index, CD27⁺/CD11b⁺ NK cells

[216]

Glioma

C57BL/6 mice (GLI261-Luc cells)

Ampicillin, Vancomycin, Neomycin, Metronidazole

↑Ochrobactrum, Klebsiella, Enterobacteriaceae

↓Bacteroides, Firmicutes

↑Tumour Volume

↓FOXP3

[194]

C57BL/6 mice (GLI261-Luc cells)

Ampicillin, Vancomycin, Neomycin, Metronidazole + Faecal microbiota transplantation

↑genus Bacteroides, genus S24-7, genus Parabacteroides, phylum Bacteriodetes

↓phylum Proteobacteria, phylum Cyanobacteria

↓Tumour Volume

↑FOXP3

[194]

Glioma

Glioma patient (IDH-WT) samples

Temozolomide

↓phylum Verrucomicrobia, Akkermansiaceae, Akkermansia

-

[184]

Malignant glioma

Recurrent Malignant Glioma patients (n = 15)

Bevacizumab + Temozolomide

↑phylum Actinobacteria, phylum Firmicutes, genus Fusicatenibacter, genus Roseburia, genus Blautia, genus Ruminococcus, genus Anaerotruncus, genus Clostridium_IV, genus Anaerostipes, genus Erysipelotrichaceae_incertae_sedis, genus Sutterellaceae, genus Parasutterella, genus Erysipelotrichia, genus Erysipelotrichales, genus Erysipelotrichaceae, genus Eggerthella, genus Intestinimonas, genus Coriobacteriaceae, genus Coriobacteriales, genus Dorea, genus Faecalibacterium, genus Ruminococcaceae, genus Escherichia_Shigella, genus Clostridium_XlVa, genus Lachnospiraceae, genus Clostridiales, genus Clostridia

↓phylum Bacteroidetes, phylum Cyanobacteria, genus Streptophyta, genus Bacteroides, genus Scardovia, genus Veillonella

-

[207]

Glioma

C57BL/6 mice (GL261 cells)

B. breve, B. longum, B. lactis, and B. bifidum in sterile saline water (4 × 10⁹ CFU/0.4 ml)

↑phylum Firmicutes, phylum Bacteroidetes, phylum Cyanobacteria, phylum Actinobacteria, genus Bifidobacterium, genus Achromobacter, genus Anaerococcus, genus Bacillus, genus Enterobacter, genus Citrobacter, genus Escherichia/Shigella, genus Enhydrobacter, genus Acinetobacter,

genus Wautersiell,

↓phylum Proteobacteria, phylum Myxococcota, genus Raoultella, genus Hydrogenophilus

↑Medial survival, Chao1 index, Shannon index, Simpson index, aerobic respiration I (cytochrome c), fatty acid salvage pathway, 1-amino-propan-2-ol, tyrosine, 4-methylene-2-pyrrolidinecarboxylic acid

↓Tumour volume, phosphocholine, 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroxybutane levels in serum, p-MEK, p-ERK1/2, Wnt5a, PD-L1, NF-κB

[273]

Glioma

C57BL/6 N mice (GL261 cells)

ABX (Vancomycin, Gentamicin) and sucralose (0.5%)

-

↑Tumour volume, CD34⁺ vessel-like structures, Vasculogenesis, CD31, VEGFα, MMP9, CD68, CD133⁺CD34⁺ cells, Gly-derivative, leucine, valine, lactate

↓IL1β, TNFα, ARG1, CD206, speed of process movement of microglial cells, butyrate, propionate, acetate, hypoxanthine, beta-xylose, trimethylamine, uracil, alpha-glucose, nicotinate, beta-galactose, propionate, bile salts 1, glutamate

[237]

C57BL/6 N mice (CT-2 A cells)

ABX (Vancomycin, Gentamicin) and sucralose (0.5%)

-

↑Tumour volume, Tumour vasculogenesis

[237]

Malignant gliomas

C57BL/6 mice (GL261 cells)

Delta-24-RGDOX

↑Actinobacteria, Verrucomicrobia, Bifidobacterium, Akkermansia

↓Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio

↓Chao1 index, Shannon index

[309]

C57BL/6 mice (GL261 cells)

Indoximod

↑Turicibacter

↓Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio

↑Survival

↓Chao1 index, Shannon index

[309]

Glioma

BALB/C nude mice (U251 cells)

Schizophyllum commune fruiting body polysaccharides

↑number of OTUs, genus Akkermansia, genus unclassified_Oscillospiraceae, genus Parabacteroides, genus [Eubacterium]_fissicatena_group, unclassified_Lachnospiraceae, Akkermansia muciniphila, Ligilactobacillus murinus, unclassified_Oscillospiraceae, Parabacteroides goldsteinii, Phocaeicola vulgatus

↓phylum Verrucomicrobiota, phylum Bacteroidetes, genus Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136_group, genus Ligilactobacillus

↑E-cadherin, cleaved-Caspase-3, ARH1

↓Tumour volume, N-cadherin, Bcl-2, p-PI3K, p-Akt

[301]

Glioma

C57BL/6J mice (GL261 cells)

RO water supplemented with Ampicillin, Neomycin, Metronidazole, Vancomycin

↑phylum Proteobacteria, genus Morganella, genus Parasutterella

↓OTU counts, ACE index, Shannon index, Chao index, phylum Firmicutes, phylum Bacteroidetes, phylum, Tenericutes, phylum Actinobacteria, phylum Deferribacteres, phylum Candidatus_Saccharibacteria, genus Lactobacillus, genus Prevotella, genus Desulfovibrio

↑Tumour volume, IL-10, % of CD206⁺ TAMs

↓Survival, IFN-γ, IL-2, TNF-α, % of CD86⁺ TAMs, CD86⁺/CD206⁺ ratio, propionic acid, butyric acid, valeric acid, caproic acid, acetic acid (in serum)

[217]

Glioma

C57BL/6J mice (GL261 cells)

RO water supplemented with Ampicillin, Neomycin, Metronidazole, Vancomycin + Faecal microbiota transplantation (from normal mice)

-

↑Survival

↓Tumour volume

[217]

Glioma

C57BL/6J mice (GL261 cells)

RO water supplemented with Ampicillin, Neomycin, Metronidazole, Vancomycin + SCFAs (propionic acid + butyric acid + valeric acid)

-

↑Survival, % of TAMs, CD86⁺/CD206⁺ ratio, % of CD86⁺ TAMs, CD86, MHC-II, iNOS/Arg-1 ratio, GLUT1, HIF-1α, HK2, PKM2, LDHA

↓Tumour volume, CD206⁺ TAMs, CD206

[217]

Optic pathway glioma

Nf1^OPG mice (germ free)

-

-

↑RNFL thickness

↓%Ki67⁺ cells, %Blbp⁺ cells, %Olig2⁺ cells, Ccl4, Ccl5, CD8⁺ cells, Ccl3, TGFβ

[283]

Nf1^OPG mice

Vancomycin

-

↑RNFL thickness

↓%Ki67⁺ cells, %Blbp⁺ cells, %Olig2⁺ cells, Ccl4, Ccl5, CD8a, CD8⁺ cells, Ccl3, TGFβ

[283]

Nf1^OPG mice (germ free)

Faecal microbiota transplantation (from Nf1^OPG mice)

-

↑%Ki67⁺ cells, %Blbp⁺ cells

[283]

Nf1^OPG mice

Vancomycin + Bacteroides

-

↑%Ki67⁺ cells, %Blbp⁺ cells

↓RNFL thickness

[283]