The contribution of the meningeal immune interface to neuroinflammation in traumatic brain injury

Table 1 Cytokines and chemokines modulating neuroinflammation in clinical TBI

Immune signature/trigger	Time
Fluid biomarkers
IFNγ	↑ 1–5 days after injury [35, 36], ↑ up to 12 months [37]
TNF	↑ 6 h–2 weeks days [24, 35, 38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50], ↑ up to 12 months [37]
IL-1β	↑ 1 day–1 month [39, 46, 51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59]
IL-6	↑ 6 h–2 weeks [24, 36, 46, 47, 49,50,51,52, 56, 58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68], ↑ up to 6 months [69]
IL-10	↑ 6 h–3 days [24, 39, 46, 51, 68, 70,71,72,73]
IL-8 (CXCL8)	↑ 2 h–5 days [48, 50, 51, 59, 69, 74], ↑ up to 12 months [37]
IL-12p70	↑ 1–3 days, peaks at days 3–5 [46, 50, 51]
TGFβ	↑ 1–21 days after trauma [75, 76]
CCL2	↑ 1–10 days [46, 77, 78], ↑ up to 3 months [58]
CCL3	↑ 1–3 days [46, 51]
CXCL8 (IL-8)	↑ 1–4.5 days [46, 51, 63, 79]
IL-18	↑ up to 10 days [80]
sIL-2R	↑1–21 days [81]
IL-17, IL-22	↑ day 5 after injury [35], ↑ up to 12 months [37]
IL-2	↑ 24 h post injury [67]
IL-9	↑ admission–12 months [37]
IL-4	↑ within 48 h post injury [59]
iNOS	↑24 h post injury [47]
NADPH	↑24 h post injury [47]
COX-2	↑24 h post injury [47]
Tissue
IFNγ	↑ 17 min–5 days injury [70]
TNF	↑ 17 min–5 days injury [70]
IL-1β	↑ 6 h–5days after injury [70]
IL-6	↑ 17 min after injury [56, 70]
CCL2	↑ 3 h–15 days post-injury [78]
CCL3	↑ 3 h–15 days post-injury [78]
IL-8 (CXCL8)	↑ 3 h–15 days post-injury [70, 78]
IL-2	↑ 17 min–5 days injury [70]
NOX2	↑12–24 h post injury [82]
NOX4	↑12–48 h post injury [82]

ISSN: 1742-2094